Temperament and styles of coping in a stressful situation and psychological consequences resulting from emigration

Introduction

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define coping with stress as: “constantly changing (dynamic) cognitive and behavioral efforts to master certain external and internal requirements, assessed by an individual as overburdening or exceeding their resources”. The ability to deal with stress can take two forms: actions to combat stress and actions of a defensive nature. A common feature of defensive stress reactions is their low effectiveness; they usually lead to failure to achieve goals under the influence of stress. The forms of defensive reactions vary, ranging from fleeing and withdrawing from a stressful situation, through aggressive activities, to various symbolic activities consisting in giving reality a new meaning that does not threaten (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). The category of coping style is related to the individual differentiation of dispositions that determine behavior under stressful conditions. It is assumed that people differ in their habitual behavior in stressful situations or in certain types of stressful situations. The concept of coping style is a construct that captures individual tendencies to cope in a certain way (Heszen-Niejodek 2000).
With regard to subjectively experienced stressors, coping is a process, an attempt to meet specific requirements assessed as exceeding or exhausting the individual’s abilities (Strelau 2002). The results of coping with stress can be assessed by observing emotional symptoms, motor activities, and physiological responses. A person can evaluate the effectiveness of a chosen stress coping strategy from the point of view of the “psychological cost” and the effects of secondary risks. Such an assessment may – but does not have to – lead to a change in the strategy of dealing with stress (Terelak 2001). One of the strategies for coping with stress is, according to Lazarus and Folkman, a task-oriented or problem-oriented strategy. It is a targeted strategy to make changes in a situation that is a source of stress and that helps to solve the problem (Grabowski et al. 2017). Problem-focused strategies include: confrontational coping, self-control, seeking social support, accepting responsibility, and planning to solve problems. Effective, deep focus on the problem requires good use of cognitive components such as rationality, flexibility and farsightedness. A realistic and accurate assessment of the stressor and available resources is necessary (Miniszewska and Chodkiewicz 2013).
People who adopt a problem-oriented style adopt various actions to solve a problem or change an existing stressful situation through cognitive processes. They also have the ability to adapt to operating in changed conditions (Mrocz-kowska and Białkowska 2014). The individual, through mobilization and concentration of efforts and plans, is supported by advice, presence and information from others (Grabowski et al. 2017).
Folkman and Lazarus believe that people tend to use from the task-oriented strategy in cases where the required solution has to be specific, innovative and positive (Grabowski et al. 2017). It is believed that strategies aimed at solving the problem are the most adaptive for every human being.
Another stress coping strategy is to focus on emotions, relying on mastering the emotional reaction associated with the appearance of a stressor. Emotions are subjectively experienced states that reflect the attitude towards our needs and the surrounding reality (Kulmatycki 2008). Emotions serve man to adapt to the world around him; they influence the direction of his activity and the processes of cognition and learning. The intensity of emotions depends on the individual characteristics of the individual (Kulmatycki 2008). The regulatory function of coping helps to control the emotional response to a given stressor. Although in the coping process more importance is attached to strategies focused on the task, at the same time the role of emotions is emphasized, indicating that regardless of the sign they perform an adaptive function. Emotional-focused coping may aim to increase arousal, thanks to which it is possible to increase the individual’s mobilization to act (Ogińska-Bulik and Juczyński 2010).
Emigration is associated with an increased risk of mental disorders that arise as a result of severe stress and adaptation difficulties. A study of Finnish economic migrants in Sweden carried out in the late 1960s showed that a significant percentage of them suffered from various types of mental disorders and diseases. The most common ones were feelings of bullying, various psychosomatic symptoms, and alcoholism (Smoleń 2014).
Stress affects not only disease but also behavior of man and the course of his treatment. There is empirical evidence that experiencing stressful life events, in particular critical for a person, weakens his current health habits (Makowska and Poprawa 2001).
Stress, adaptation difficulties and a sense of loneliness can lead to various health problems, most often depression and psychosomatic ailments such as hypertension, dizziness, digestive and endocrine system disorders (Smoleń 2014). There are also many cases of suicide among emigrants. They can have various causes, and most often are the result of a combination of many different overlapping circumstances. Often, however, there are repeated ones that link self-abuse with the phenomenon of social maladjustment and a sense of uprooting. Emigration maladjustment may have various causes. One of them is the spiral of failures, which Osipowicz (2001) describes as follows: “lack of work, inability to get or keep it, unemployment is the worst that can happen to an economic migrant. He faces a financial disaster and becomes convinced of his own worthlessness. He is directly threatened by the lack of money for food, housing or clothes. He loses strength and willingness to act. In extreme cases, unemployment can lead to depression and frustration”. Social maladjustment can go hand in hand with a feeling of being uprooted. This feeling often accompanies shuttle emigrants, whose emigration strategy, on the one hand, is not conducive to integration with the host community, and on the other hand, causes disturbances in functioning in the host community. Meanwhile, it was established some time ago that integration with the community may have a protective effect on the health of an individual. Integration with the host community is, however, more and more difficult due to the changing climate of opinions in these societies about economic migrants from poorer countries of the European Union (Pawlak 2012).

Material and methods

The present study was conducted on a group of 96 Polish emigrants who live in the Netherlands. They were conducted among the customers of Pomoc Nederland. The research was carried out in the period from 12 July to 20 September 2017. Respondents had been in exile from one to 20 years. During the study, all subjects were of legal age. The main goal of this research was to determine whether and what relationship exists between temperament and particular styles of coping with stress and the psychological consequences resulting from emigration. On this basis, a hypothesis was generated that there is a relationship between temperament and the psychological consequences of emigration stress: Positive Feelings, Negative Feelings, Affective Balance, Anxiety-State, Life Satisfaction. Moreover, it was hypothesized that there is a relationship between the strategies of coping with stress and the psychological consequences of emigration stress: Positive Feelings, Negative Feelings, Affective Balance, Anxiety-State, Life Satisfaction. The following research tools were used to measure these variables: the Temperament Questionnaire (EAS) by Buss and Plomin (1984), the Mini-COPE Stress Measurement Inventory by Charles, Carver, Scheier and Weintraub (1989), the Positive and Negative Experience Scale (SPIND) by Diener and colleagues (2009), the Self-Assessment Questionnaire (STAI) by Spielberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene (1970) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) by Diener, Emmons, Larson, and Griffin (1985).
The Temperament Questionnaire (EAS) is used to measure individual temperamental characteristics. It was developed by Buss and Plomin (1984), and adapted to Polish conditions by Oniszczenko (1997). The described tool contains 20 statements, which respondents respond to on a five-point scale: 1 = definitely not, and 5 = definitely yes. Five scales can be distinguished in this questionnaire: Emotionality, Fear, Anger, Activity and Sociability.
The COPE inventory is one of the most commonly used tools for measuring coping with stress. The questionnaire consists of 28 statements enabling the measurement of 14 strategies for coping with a difficult situation. They are: Active Coping, Planning, Positive Reevaluation, Acceptance, Sense of Humor, Turning to Religion, Seeking Emotional Support, Seeking Instrumental Support, Substitute Activities, Denial, Discharge, Use of Psychoactive Substances, Ceasing to Act, Blaming Oneself. Answers are given on a four-point scale, where 0 = I almost never do it, and 3 = I almost always do it. The results are calculated as the sum of the responses in the individual area (Ziarko 2014).
The Positive and Negative Experience Scale (SPIND) is used to calculate the overall affective balance. It is composed of two subscales: positive and negative feelings. The Positive Feelings Scale (SPIND-P) adds values 1-5 for six items: positive, good, pleasant, happy, joyful, satisfied. However, in the Negative Feelings Scale (SPIND-N), the values 1-5 for the following items are summed up: negative, bad, unpleasant, sad, scared, angry. In the overall affective balance, the resulting SPIND-P score is subtracted from the SPIND-N score. The Self-Assessment Questionnaire (STAI) measures anxiety as a relatively constant personality trait. It was developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene (1970). It was adapted to Polish conditions by Spielberger, Tysarczyk and Wrześniewski (1991). The described tool consists of two scales with 20 items: the X-1 scale is used to test state anxiety, and the X-2 scale is used to test trait anxiety. The answers are given numbers from 1 to 4, which the respondent marks according to his feelings.
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) measures satisfaction with one’s life, with achievements and the conditions in which a person lives. This tool was created by Diener and colleagues (1985), adapted from Juczyński (2001). Based on the SWLS, an overall life satisfaction index can be obtained. The described tool consists of five statements that concern the cognitive assessment of life as a whole. The first four statements relate to the assessment of the present, while the fifth statement relates more to the assessment of the past and summarizes life so far.

Description of the study group

The study was conducted on a group of 96 Polish emigrants who live in the Netherlands. Most of the respondents were women, who constituted a group of 63.5%, while men constituted a group of 36.5% of the research group. The largest group consisted of people aged 31 to 40 – 29 people (30.2%). A slightly smaller group was formed by people in the age range from 25 to 30 years – 21 people (21.9%). Smaller groups among the respondents were people aged up to 24, numbering 18 (18.8%), and aged 41 to 50, numbering 15 (15.6%). On the other hand, people aged over 50 constituted the smallest group of respondents, representing 13.5%.
The largest group among the respondents consisted of people staying in exile for 310 years, representing 52.1% of the respondents. Another group of respondents (15.6%) had emigrated 10-20 years ago. Among the respondents, 11.5% had been in exile for less than a year, and 19.8% had been in exile for 1 to 3 years. However, only 1 person (1.0%) had been in exile for over 20 years.
Most of the respondents were people who were in a relationship and shared a flat with a partner – 35 people (36.5%). There were 29 respondents in marriage (30.2%), while 32 respondents (33.3%) were single.
The education of the respondents was mainly secondary education, which was reported by 39 people (40.6%). 22 people (22.9%) had post-secondary education, 18 people (18.8%) had basic vocational education, 14 people (14.6%) had higher education, only 1 person (1.0%) had lower secondary education (1.0%), while 2 people (2.1%) had primary education.

Results

At the very beginning, a database was created in the STATISTICA 13.1 program, in which the responses of the respondents were entered. Then, descriptive statistics for all variables were analyzed. Therefore, the minimum and maximum values, average values and standard deviations for the analyzed variables were calculated. The next step was to check the assumption about the normality of the distribution of the obtained data. In order to check for significant relationships between the analyzed variables, Kendall’s tau-b correlation was used.

Descriptive statistics

The results presented in the tables below indicate the minimum and maximum result, mean, standard deviation, Cronbach’s α reliability index and the results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the studied variables. The analysis shows that the reliability of each scale is at a level that allows for their inclusion in further analysis. Distribution of the variables Positive Feelings, Negative Feelings, Affective Balance, Anxiety-State is not consistent with the normal distribution. Distribution of the Anxiety-Trait and Life Satisfaction variables is consistent with the normal distribution.
The results indicate that the reliability of each scale is at a level allowing their inclusion in further analysis. However, the variables Activity and Sociability received a moderate reliability index of α around 0.50, but this result is not low enough to exclude these variables from further analysis. Distribution of the variables Emotionality: Dissatisfaction, Emotionality: Fear and Emotionality: Anger does not follow the normal distribution. The distribution of the variables Activity and Sociability is consistent with the normal distribution.
The results show that the reliability of each scale is on a level that allows them to be included in further analysis. However, the variables Active Coping, Acceptance and Sense of Humor, Surrogate Activities, Denial and Discharge received a moderate reliability index of α around 0.50. However, the result is not low enough to exclude this variable from further analysis. The distribution of all studied variables is not consistent with the normal distribution.
In order to verify the hypothesis that there is a relationship between temperament and the psychological consequences of emigration stress, the Kendall tau-b correlation coefficient was calculated for individual pairs of variables.
It was found that Activity weakly and positively correlated with Negative Feelings and Anxiety as a state. Sociability correlates moderately positively with Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction, and moderately negatively with Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and Anxiety as a state. This means that high scores on the Sociability scale correspond to high scores on the Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction scales, and low scores on the Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and State anxiety scales. This means that the more sociable a person is, the more positive feelings they have and the more satisfied they are with their lives. People who are social have fewer negative feelings and show less anxiety as a state. Emotionality: Dissatisfaction correlates moderately, negatively with Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction, and moderately, positively with Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and Anxiety as a state. Thus, high scores on the Emotionality: Dissatisfaction scale correspond to low scores on the Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction scales, and high scores on the Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and State anxiety scales. It turns out that the more dissatisfied a person feels, the fewer positive feelings he has and the less satisfaction he or she shows with life. These results may also indicate that people who are dissatisfied have more negative feelings and show a greater level of anxiety as a state.
Emotionality: Fear correlates weakly, negatively with Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction, and moderately, positively with Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and Anxiety as a state. This means that the high results obtained on the Emotionality: Fear scale correspond to the low results obtained on the Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction scales, and high results on the Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and State anxiety scales. The more fear a person feels, the fewer positive feelings he has and the less satisfied with life he is. People with fear have more negative feelings and show a higher level of state anxiety.
Emotionality: Anger correlates moderately, negatively with Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction, and moderately, positively with Negative Feelings, Affective Balance, and Anxiety as a state. This means that high scores on the Emotionality: Anger scale correspond to low scores on the Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction scales, and high scores on the Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and State anxiety scales. It was found that the more angry a person is, the fewer positive feelings they have and the less satisfaction they experience with their lives. It was also found that people who feel angry have more negative feelings and they show a higher level of state anxiety.
In the next stage, it was established whether there is a significant correlation between the strategies of coping with stress and the psychological consequences of emigration stress. After checking the normality of the distribution, which turned out to be different from the normal, the Kendall tau-b correlation was used to test the research hypothesis. Table 5 presents the results of using the strategy of coping with stress and the psychological consequences of emigration stress.
The results showed that Positive Feelings significantly, weakly, and positively correlated with Problem-Focused Self-Counseling, Active Self-Counseling, Emotional-Focused Coping, Positive Reevaluation, Acceptance, and Seeking Emotional Support. This means that high scores on the Positive Feelings scale correspond to high scores on the Problem-Focused, Active-Counseling, Emotional-Focused, Positive Reevaluation, Acceptance and Seeking Emotional Support scales. Positive feelings correlate weakly negatively with Dysfunctional Coping, Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Cessation and Self-Blame. This means that high scores on the Positive Feelings scale correspond to low scores on the Dysfunctional Coping, Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Cessation and Self-Blame scales.
Negative Feelings correlate moderately and positively with Dysfunctional Coping, and weakly, positively with Surrogate Activities, Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Cessation of Activities, and Self-Blame. This means that high scores on the Negative Feelings scale correspond to high scores on the Dysfunctional Coping, Surrender, Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Inaction and Self-Blame scales.
The Affective Balance and Anxiety as a state correlate weakly and negatively with Emotional-Focused Self-Counseling, Positive Reevaluation, Acceptance and Seeking Emotional Support, and weakly and positively with Denial, Discharging, Psychoactive Substance Use, Cessation and Self-Blame. This means that high Affective Balance and Anxiety as a state scores are accompanied by low scores on the Emotional Focused Self-Help, Positive Reevaluation, Acceptance and Seeking Emotional Support scales, and high scores on the Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Discontinuation, and Self-Blame scales.
Life Satisfaction correlates weakly, positively with Emotional Focusing, Positive Reevaluation and Seeking Emotional Support and weakly and negatively with Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Cessation, and Self-Blame. This means that high scores on the Life Satisfaction scale are accompanied by high scores on the Emotion-Focused Self-Esteem, Positive Reevaluation and Seeking Emotional Support scales, and low scores on the Scales of Denial, Discharge, Psychoactive Substance Use, Discontinuation of Action, and Self-Blame.
The above data could indicate that the more positive feelings a person experiences and the more satisfied with life they are, the better they cope with stress, preferring problem-focused and emotional coping methods. These results could also indicate that the more negative feelings and anxiety a person experiences, the worse they cope with stress using mainly dysfunctional strategies.
Additionally, in order to get to know the respondents better, the relationships between the age of the respondents, the duration of their stay in emigration, income and the analyzed variables were determined. Moreover, it was checked whether gender differentiates the intensity of the measured variables.
No significant correlations were found in the case of the income and age of the respondents, as the significance level p > 0.05.
On the other hand, the time spent in exile positively correlates with four styles of coping with difficult situations: Active Coping (r = 0.22, p < 0.05), Planning (r = 0.21, p < 0.05), Positive Reevaluation (r = 0.28, p < 0.01), Dealing with something else (r = 0.32, p < 0.01).
The longer the respondents stay in exile, the more often they use task-oriented coping styles in difficult situations, make a positive reappraisal, and also engage in something else.
In addition, there were differences between the genders in terms of two styles of coping with stress: Turning to religion (Z = 2.44, p < 0.05) and Dealing with something else (Z = 2.39, p < 0.05). It turns out that it is women in stressful situations who more often use styles focused on turning to religion and doing something else than men.

Discussion

The main goal of the research was to examine whether and what relationship exists between the various styles of coping with stress, temperament and the psychological consequences of emigration stress. It was hypothesized that there is a relationship between temperament and psychological consequences of emigration stress: Positive Feelings, Negative Feelings, Affective Balance, Anxiety-State, Life Satisfaction. Moreover, it was hypothesized that there was a relationship between the Strategies for coping with stress and the psychological consequences of emigration stress: Positive Feelings, Negative Feelings, Affective Balance, Anxiety-State, Life Satisfaction.
It was found that high results obtained in the Sociability scale correspond to high results obtained in the Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction scales, and low results in the Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and State anxiety scales. The more sociable a person is, the more positive feelings they have and the more satisfied they are with their lives.
People who are social have fewer negative feelings and show less anxiety as a state. It can be assumed that such people will be more open to new experiences and will not be afraid of new challenges they face in emigration. They will be more likely to make friends, which may be helpful in finding a job and social support.
High results obtained in the Emotionality: Dissatisfaction scale correspond to low results obtained in the Positive Feelings and Life Satisfaction scales, and high results in the Negative Feelings, Affective Balance and State anxiety scales. The more dissatisfied a person feels, the fewer positive feelings they have and the less satisfied they are with their lives. People who are dissatisfied have more negative feelings and show a higher level of anxiety as a state. It can be assumed that such people, if they do not receive social support, will not be able to cope with the stress of emigration on their own. Their behavior may reveal a certain level of caution and fear, as well as reluctance to enter into relationships with other people, and the strategies of coping with stress will be predominantly destructive, which may lead to depressive disorders and suicides, which are observed among Polish emigrants in the Netherlands (Graaf 2008).
Moreover, the more fear a person feels, the fewer positive feelings they have and the less satisfied with life. Individuals who experience fear have more negative feelings and show a greater level of anxiety as a state.
It was found that the more angry a person is, the fewer positive feelings they have and the less satisfaction they experience with their lives. It was also found that people experiencing anger have more negative feelings and show higher levels of anxiety as a state.
Subsequent results may indicate that the more positive feelings a person experiences and the more satisfied with life they are, the better they cope with stress, preferring problem-focused and emotional coping methods. On the other hand, the more negative feelings and anxiety a given person experiences, the worse they cope with stress, using mainly dysfunctional strategies. It can therefore be concluded that emigrants in the Netherlands who show positive feelings and satisfaction with life do not feel anxiety and fear of staying in a foreign country and do not feel the negative consequences of the stress associated with staying away from their family.
It turns out that the more problems a given emigrant has to face, the more negative feelings and anxiety they show. On the other hand, her satisfaction with life is lower and she exhibits fewer positive feelings.
The research on emigration stress shows that economic migrants belong to groups with an increased health risk, which results from the type of work they undertake. In most publications devoted to migrant health, the main emphasis is on mental health problems such as stress, depression, adaptation difficulties and culture shock. Experts emphasize that any kind of migration has mental health risks. Polish emigrants are particularly exposed to stress and other mental disorders due to high and often unrealistic expectations related to emigration. Additionally, some people are not prepared for the difficulties associated with the organization of life in exile, such as the need to complete a number of formalities, find a flat or a language barrier (Smoleń 2014).
The obtained results can be used in the field of work of lecturers and psychologists who conduct all therapeutic workshops or training in the prevention of coping with stress and negative emotions in emigration. These workshops can be conducted in training centers, social welfare centers and other institutions that help people in exile. In such institutions, emigrants could learn about the symptoms of stress and depression, techniques for coping with stress, and avoiding depression related to being in emigration.

Conclusions

The more sociable a person is, the more positive feelings they have and the greater their satisfaction with life, and such people have fewer negative feelings and show a lower level of anxiety as a state.
The greater the anger a person feels, the fewer positive feelings they have and the less satisfaction they show with life. People who feel angry have more negative feelings and show a higher level of anxiety as a state.
People who are dissatisfied have more negative feelings and they show a higher level of anxiety as a state.
The greater the fear a person feels, the fewer positive feelings they have and the less satisfaction with life they show. People who feel fear have more negative feelings and show a higher level of anxiety as a state.

Disclosure

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References